The Spread of Buddhism and Christianity Essay Example For Students

The Spread of Buddhism and Christianity Essay Buddhism and Christianity were each founded by one person, and then eventually grew into two of the largest religions in the world. Each religion had different reasons for the success in the spreading of each respected belief. Although both faced many hardships, the two religions overcame and prevailed through their problems and continued to find ways to attract new believers every day. Buddhism was founded by one man, Siddhartha Guatama. He was born into royalty around 563 B.C.E. in a Kingdom near the border of India and Nepal. He was raised in wealth and luxury, and at the age of 16, he married a wealth woman and they had a child together. Around the age of 29, he began to realize that all humans were in a cycle of suffering, dying, and then being reincarnated only to suffer and die over and over again. It was then that he decided to leave his wife and child to find a way out of this repeating cycle of life and death. First he studied with teachers, but found he was coming to no conclusions, so he turned to more extreme things such as self-mortification, but he was still left unsatisfied. We will write a custom essay on The Spread of Buddhism and Christianity specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now As a last resort, Guatama began intense yogic meditation under a papal tree. One night, he went into a deep trance, and moved through different levels of being. First, he saw all of his previous lives, living through each one over and over again. He then realized that reincarnation is based on how you treat all living things and whether you do right or wrong. He then achieved the knowledge of everything there is to be known in the world, and he attained perfection. He became the â€Å"Buddha†, which means â€Å"Enlightened One†, and he found the release from reincarnation. Buddhacarita, the best known biography of the Buddha, describes what it was like when dawn broke and the Buddha came out of his trance; â€Å"†¦and the leader of all reached the state of all-knowledge. When, through his Buddhahood, he had cognized this fact, the earth swayed like a woman drunken with wine, the sky shone bright with the Siddhas who appeared in crowds in all the directions, and th e mighty drums of thunder resounded through the air. Pleasant breezes blew softly, rain fell from a cloudless sky, flowers and fruits dropped from the trees out of season-in an effort, as it were, to show reverance for him,† (The Global Experience, Ashvaghosha, pg. 79). Having achieved enlightenment, the Buddha began spreading his knowledge to help others achieve â€Å"Nirvana†, which means to be released from the reincarnation cycle. He preached that there were 4 Noble Truths: (1) all life is suffering; (2) the source of suffering is desire; (3) to end desiring is to end suffering; (4) there is an eight-fold path to end suffering; to have the right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. This idea of being released from suffering attracted many people, and Buddhism soon spread rapidly through Northern India, and then through Southern India. However, the popularity of this form of Buddhism (Theravada, as it came to be known, meaning â€Å"way of the elders†) began to dwindle as only a few people were being able to enlightenment as it was so difficult. It was mainly monks who were practicing the eight-fold path, and they would meditate for months and years and would maybe experience an inner spiritual awakening, but few were achieving Nirvana. It got even more difficult as years wore on because after someone had achieved Nirvana and died, it left other people without someone to help guide them to Nirvana. Many people began to feel that achieving enlightenment was nearly impossible, and they began to drift away from the religion, causing a major downfall in the spread of Buddhism. .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 , .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .postImageUrl , .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 , .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:hover , .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:visited , .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:active { border:0!important; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:active , .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96 .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u24c0a1f0a15ead87328cf11fc77b6e96:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Machine Roles In Future EssayIt was then that a new form of Buddhism arose in India called â€Å"Mahayana† Buddhism, meaning â€Å"great vehicle of salvation†. This form of Buddhism started around the 1st century B.C.E., and it’s ideas differed pretty drastically from the older Theravada version. This newer version of Buddhism spread quickly out of India into Afghanistan and Central Asia, and then into China, Tibet, Mongolia, Vietnam, and finally into Korea and Japan. One of the main reasons for it’s rapid spread and great attraction to people was the â€Å"bodhisattva†, meaning â€Å"Buddha to be†. The bodhisattva was someone who had achieved Nirvana , however, instead of being taken out of the reincarnation cycle, they chose to remain in the cycle to help all others achieve Nirvana. What this meant to people was that now they could have someone help them and guide them down the path to becoming a Buddha. They no longer had to do it themselves and lead a perfect life, the bodhisattvas could show them exactly what they needed to do. Another attraction about Mahayana Buddhism was that the people could pray to the bodhisattvas for help, forgiveness, or anything. Theravada Buddhism lacked any god-like figures that the people could pray to, and people need something like that in times of need when they have no one else to turn to. These god-like bodhisattvas helped attract new people to the religion who might have been turned off by Theravada Buddhism because there were no god-like figures to pray and look to. One of these bodhisattvas that people prayed to was â€Å"Kuan-yin†, which meant â€Å"the one who hears the cry†. Kuan-yin was a Goddess, and this helped spread the religion because now women could achieve Nirvana and become Buddhas, something that didn’t happen in Theravada Buddhism. Allowing women to become Bodhisattvas attracted many more people to the religion, and helped make it spread that much faster. Christianity originated from Jesus of Nazareth, who was believed to be born from the Virgin Mary and was the son of God. It is believed that he was put here to redeem humanity for all their sins and to bring eternal life for all those who followed him. Jesus preached that at the end of the world, there would be a judgement day, and all those who followed God would be rewarded with eternal life and all those who didn’t would be condemned. Until judgement day, he taught his people to stay away from sin, show love, charity, humility, and to believe in him and his divine mission. Jesus soon gained a following, mostly of poor people. Many upperclass citizens of Jerusalem became suspicious of this group of people, and they began to warn the Roman governor that Jesus and his followers could be revolutionaries. Because of this, Jesus was crucified and put to death around 30 C.E. After the death of Jesus, Christianity began spreading a little throughout Jewish communities, however it wasn’t spreading like wildfire as Mahayana Buddhism had done before it. It wasn’t until Saint Paul of Tarsus that the religion began to pick up. Saint Paul of Tarsus was born Saul, in the city of Tarsus is Asia Minor. Earlier in his life, he had a major role in the persecution of the Christians until he converted to Christianity around 35 C.E. and changed his name to Paul. Many people wanted Christianity to be a version of Judaism and have only Jewish people convert, however, Paul wanted Christianity to be a universal religion, and he soon gained many converts who were non-Jews. Christianity soon spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. Many of the followers were the poor and uneducated who were looking for some fulfillment in their lives. It didn’t take long before the Roman government began to distrust the new religion. The Christians refused to worship their Emporer because it would be against their religion, and the Romans considered this treason. Soon the persecution of Christians was heavy and was being done by the citizens, not the government. Although this was a major setback, it had it’s benefits by unifying the Christians even more, and by getting rid of so-so believers and weak Christians. .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e , .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .postImageUrl , .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e , .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:hover , .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:visited , .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:active { border:0!important; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:active , .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3496c84f72eb8eca6d8a25293ff0b59e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Communication within groups EssayDespite numerous persecutions, Christianity remained strong and continued to spread into Italy and all throughout Western Europe. A major turning point of Christianity in Rome occurred in 311 C.E. when the ruler Galerius, perhaps influenced by his Christian wife, permitted Christian worship to occur in his empire. By 394 C.E., Christianity had become the official religion of the Roman Empire, and from there it only continued to spread throughout the world. Both Christianity and Buddhism were started from nothing but grew into two of the largest religions in the world. The reasons why Buddhism succeeded in spreading to other countries and people are different from the reasons Christianity spread. Buddhism spread because it adapted to what the people wanted and needed. When the numbers began to dwindle, a new form of Buddhism was there, adapted into what would attract new people, and succeeding at it. Christianity, on the other hand, never changed or adapted. The ideas and beliefs have stayed the same since the beginning. The reasons it succeeded in spreading was because it was attractive to everybody. Anyone could be a part of it, not just monks or very strict people. It united all types of people for one cause, to serve God and achieve eternal life. Both these religions spread and attracted many people, and continue to do so even to this day. Bibliography:

Iceland Fire and Ice Essay

Iceland Fire and Ice Essay Iceland: Fire and Ice Essay Iceland, an Island just below the Arctic Circle is located between Europe and North America in the North Atlantic Ocean. The Island was first discovered by Nordic and Irish people in the 9th Century, discovering that the Island had offered a wealth of natural wonders. The landscape is characterized by wide glaciers, active volcanoes, fjords, waterfalls and numerous geothermic springs and geysers making Iceland one of the most geographically active areas in the world. Iceland has an area of 103,000 square kilometers with a population of approximately 320,000 people. Being beneath the Arctic Circle and given the name â€Å"Iceland† gives the wrong impression of its name because Iceland does not only consist of ice but, also has some of the most volatile volcanoes in the world. Iceland is known as â€Å"The land of fire and ice† for various reasons; most importantly, because many of the active volcanoes are uniformly covered by glaciers and ice. Due to Iceland's location, the mid-arctic ridge on a divergent tectonic plate boundary has a high concentration of active volcanoes. Iceland sits on both sides of the ridge, which is the entire part of the ridge system. This ridge has a 10,000-mile crack on the ocean floor which was caused by the separation of North American and Eurasian tectonic plates (Iceland.IS). When plates meet, they rub against each other while they slide to opposite sides. Sometimes, they move away from each other causing the release of pressure which exposes the lava sea between the two. The exposing of the lava allows the lava to stream to the surface where it cools down and forms new lands. This is called constructive junction. Twenty-million years-ago the island did not even exist (para 2.). Iceland is one of the frequent islands shaken by earth tremors. Since the settlement of Iceland in AD 874, thirteen volcanoes have erupted out of the 30 active volcanic systems. Every 5 years, Iceland experiences major volcanic events. In 1784 and 1896, large areas of southern Iceland had been devastated by the worst earthquakes (Iceland.Is). A third of the lava that has canvased over the earth’s surface has erupted in Iceland since the middle ages. Fortunately, because of the massive volcanic activities that occur, the geological activity that creates the volcanoes gives an endless supply of geothermal energy. Iceland has one of the cheapest and cleanest forms of energy in existence; over 90% of housing in Iceland is heated by the natural geothermal heat. The melt water created by the sub-glacial volcanoes provides Iceland with a great potential source of hydroelectric power. Also, hot springs can be found almost everywhere. Therefore, Iceland is the least polluted country du e to all the clean energy. Iceland may have been created by the landing of the volcanoes, but the ice is what shapes them today. Glaciers cover approximately 10 % of Iceland. Geologists believe that the entire island was buried beneath miles of ice just less than 8,000-years ago. As the glaciers melted away, they have carved Iceland’s miraculous steep-sided valleys, fjords, and long narrow glacial valley’s that have been flooded by the sea. Today, the ice continues to smooth and carve the land of Iceland. One day, Iceland’s newest volcanoes blew through the ice delivering smoke and ash into the arctic air thousands of feet high, while millions of gallons of water from melted ice made its way down the hill giving the grand production of nature. This was the ultimate combination of fire and ice (InterKnowledge Corporation, 2005). Today, the Island has places that look like they belong to another world. The active volcanoes regularly erupt adding more lava and ash to the landscape; while these eruptions occur, sometimes the spit of lava and ash turn into spectacular and dangerous geologic fireworks. The ashes from the volcanoes are

Business in Action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business in Action - Essay Example Another purpose of this report is to urge other companies to emulate the nine building blocks in their business model in order to ensure that they attain a competitive edge in the local and international markets. Business in Action (Student’s Name) (Instructor’s Name) (Course Name) (Date) Executive summary One of the major aspects that have made Coca-Cola a successful company is the use of value proposition that entails quality brands that meets the needs of is consumers. Through production of quality brands that are non-carbonated in nature such as Minute Maid, Dasani and Fruitopia, the company recognizes the needs of its market segments. In its customer segmentation, Coca-Cola adopts two major aspects that include mass marketing and niche marketing. Similarly, the company has embarked on creating a strong customer relationship through the use of personal assistance as well as communities. Key activities that are utilized by Coca-Cola in its business model include prod uction and problem solving. To ensure continuity in its production, Coca-Cola has assets that were valued at 86.17 US$ as at 2012. Additionally, through its large number of employees, the company is in a position to effectively distribute its brands in the local and international markets. Major partnerships that are adopted by Coca-Cola in its operations include strategic alliances and coopetition. Key companies that Coca-Cola has formed partnership with include Minute Maid, Odwalla, Fuze beverage and Barq’s. To ensure effective distribution of its products, Coca-Cola has employed wholesalers and retailers as well as a strong sales team. In this way, the company is able to effectively penetrate new markets. Through transaction revenue as the major source of revenue streams, Coca-Cola has continued to increase its annual revenue an aspect is significant in its expansion strategies. In its cost structure, Coca-Cola adopts two techniques that includes cost-driven and outsourcing of its distribution system. Table of Contents Executive summary 3 Table of Contents 4 1. Introduction 5 1.1.The offer/ value propositions 5 1.2.Customer segments 6 1.3.Customer relationships 6 1.4.Key activities 7 1.5.Key resources 8 1.6.Key partners 8 1.7.Channels 9 1.8.Revenue streams 9 1.9.Cost structure 9 2. Conclusion 10 References 11 1. Introduction Based on the stiff competition in the current business atmosphere, local and international companies have adopted various strategies to face off their competitors. Besides putting in place appropriate marketing strategies, firms that are focused at retaining their customers and attracting new clients should emulate an effective business model. One of the major companies that have come up with appropriate business model is Coca-Cola Company. Coca-Cola Company is the world leader in the soft drink industry. Being headquartered in Atlanta US, Coca-Cola operates in more than 200 countries. With more than 500 brands, Coca-Cola has atta ined a competitive advantage over its rivals such as Pepsi and Starbucks. Some of the major brands that have made the company benefit from strong customer awareness and loyalty include Coke, Caffeine Free New Coke, Minute Maid Soft Drink, Alhambra, E2, Sprite, and Georgia among others. Through the diversified product line, the company has effectively met the needs of its consumers an aspect that has not only resulted to increased revenue for the company but also a strong positive customer-product

Gay Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Gay Marriage - Essay Example Massachusetts became the first state to legalize marriage between same-sex couples on May 17, 2004, as a result of a November 2003 decision by the state’s highest court that denying gay and lesbian couples the right to marry violated the state’s constitution. (Smith, 2005:2) Though homosexuality has been being practiced for centuries in almost all parts of the earth, both explicitly or secretly, and men and women belonging to various age groups get indulged into it, yet an overwhelming majority of human societies apparently denounce the same provided it challenges the moral values prevailing in the culture as well as unrestricted permission of the same may put the reproduction system as well as survival of human race at grave jeopardy. Marriage’s role in upholding respect for the transmission of human life is the first event in procreation. Humans undergo unprecedented challenges to that respect because of new techno-science that opens up unprecedented modes of t ransmission of life. (Somerville, 2003:3) The religious leaders including rabbis, monks, priests and bishops particularly condemn and censure same sex relations and marriage due to the very reality that the Scriptures do not allow it at any cost. According to Bible, if a man also lies with mankind, as he lieth with a woman; both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them. (Leviticus, 20:13) It is therefore, the Abrahamic faiths, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam, rebuke gay sex without granting any space to this activity. Though several western countries, having Christians in majority, have displayed relaxation to voluntary gay sex, yet the Muslim states are still reluctant to bestow such rights upon their subjects. They cite the example of the people of Prophet Lot, tale of whom has manifestly been narrated in the Holy Qur’an, who were pelted with stones from the heavens and destroyed en masses for transgr essing from the right path for openly developing male-male relationships and thus ignoring their women and putting reproduction at stake subsequently. (Al-Aaraf: 80-82)Â  Moreover, other conservative faiths including Hinduism and Confucianism also denounce gay marriage on religious grounds, without giving slightest way to the same. Gay sexual union observes opposition beyond religion too, as a large proportion of scholars, thinkers and philosophers consider it as the violation of morality and thus perversion in the real sense. They declare homosexuals as mentally retarded patients, who are undergoing psychological and emotional collapse or disorder because of some deprivation or incident they have undergone in their past. They are of the opinion that the children who were ransacked, abused and molested could turn as murderers, child molesters, pederasts and rapist as well while adopting criminal line on becoming grown ups. It is therefore the homosexuality cannot be tolerated or ne glected as a curse for society. The price of toleration of serious deviance from a society’s constitutive morality is the loss of a distinctive form of interpersonal integration in community understood as something worthwhile for its own sake. (George, 1993:65). The opposition of gay rights is not confined to the

To live Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

To live - Movie Review Example Further down, embedding the systems into Taoism is the primordial vision for life bound towards the recurrenceof the compensatory adjustmentsof such conscious attitudes irrespective of their kind. Though the tragedies befalling Fu-gui appear to be as a result of chance, they are a symbol of the failure of reconciling human experience with morality. This is coupled with the failure of recognizing the collective unconsciousness. Therefore, the elements that stayalive within the film, huozhe, are not simply the biological hero and heroine lives, but the "archaic remnants" of the psychic life and the images and associations which are analogous to various primitive ideas, rites, and mythwhich try to continue re-establishing an equilibrium through restoration of the images and emotions to express a state of unconscious. Evidently, Zhang is a commendable film ­maker who seeks to keepalive the forgotten instincts’ language and is also a popular myth-maker who trends towards the Chin ese to again understand life based on how best to imagine up to its distant past. The film’s viewer is led to see bias, prejudice as well as psychic malaise of the 20thCentury immediately he is taken through the rites and symbols through which life was perceived and lived within the ancient Asia andChina. The precarious life of Fu-gui's is icon-graphically related to that of Sakyamuni. He is born son of the petty king who is also brought up through a relatively luxurious and abandoned life, his young son and wife at the age of 29 and attains enlightenment close to six years after extreme self-mortification. Basically, the events within To Live indicate the Noble Truths across Indian Buddhism. First, life is seen to be permeated through suffering and dissatisfaction and the origin of suffering is attached to a craving. Further, the cessation of suffering as depicted in the film is based on the cessation of the craving. All persons in the film are visited by suffering and pain due to the need to keep on hoping for their bitter disillusionment to be a condition for enlightenment as well as a possibility of turning into an individual of self-knowledge. What is striking within the film ‘To Live’is the perception of life across the twentieth-century Chinese who are accustomed to discarding and ignoring the culture to be "archaic" and "old" The film proceeds to validate traditional worldviews which are held in contempt based on the earlier iconoclast and radical intellectuals. Such reversal is only attained through utter failure of Fu ­gui in comprehending the changes taking through as seen in communist revolution. The experience of Fu-gui makes the viewer on the other hand more aware of the atrocities and indignities which the Chinese population have endured andcommitted, and of the simple and narrow ways the state has interpreted history. The social progress narrative is parodied and satirized as a dream while Fu-gui makes prophesies for the g randson, Man-tou, and son, You-qin, who, on a number of occasions request him to make predictions of their future. The happens within the Civil War as well as the land reform processes in the 1940s, the 1950s Great Leap Forward andthe socialist collectivization coupled with the Cultural Revolution lasting to 1976 from 1966, could have been "progress" a number of them but not for Fu-gui as they were

Kansas Gun City Experiment | Research Analysis

Kansas Gun City Experiment | Research Analysis INTRODUCTION This paper provides a critical assessment of a level 3 impact evaluation that was assigned in 2012. The study chosen was the â€Å"Kansas City Gun Experiment† which was undertaken by Sherman and Rogan (1995). This paper analyses how well the selected study addressed the issues of reliability of measurement, internal validity of causal inferences, external validity of conclusions to the full population the study sampled and the clarity of the policy implications of applying the results in policing. This essay is divided into six areas. Firstly, a summary of the Kansas City Gun Experiment was presented. This summary gives a brief account of the history of the experiment as well as describes the criminological theories to which the experiment was based, the methodological processes of the experiment and a brief description of the findings of the experiment. Following the summary the essay verges onto the main assessment of the study. Firstly the reliability of measurement of the study is critiqued by examining its test-retest reliability and its internal consistency. Secondly the internal validity of causal inferences was assessed to determine whether the causal relationships between the two variables were properly demonstrated. The external validity of conclusions to the full population the study sampled was then assessed followed by the clarity of the policy implications of applying the results in policing. SUMMARY The Kansas City Gun Experiment, carried out for 29 weeks, from July 7th 1992 to Jnuaray 27th, 1993, was a police patrol project that was aimed at reducing gun violence, drive-by shootings and homicides in the U.S.A. It was based on the premise that seizure of guns and gun crime are inversely proportional. This hypothesis was based on the theories of deterrence and incapacitation. The Kansas City Police Department ( KCPD) implemented greater proactive police patrols in hotspots where gun crimes were prevalent. The study of these patrols were studied by Sherman and Rogan 1995) employing the use of quasi-experimental design. Two areas were chosen for the experiment. Beat 144, the target area, was chosen due to elevated incidences of violent crimes including homicides and drive-by shootings. Beat 242 was chosen as the comparison area or control group due to similar numbers in drive-by shootings. The control group which was used to increase the reliability of results was left untreated meaning that no special efforts or extra patrols were carried out. In contrast beat 144 was treated several different strategies for increasing gun seizures. Some of the techniques used included stop and search and safety frisks. Officers working overtime, from 7pm to 1 am, 7 days a week, were rotated in pairs to provide patrols focused solely on the detection and seizure of guns. These officers did not respond to any other calls that were not gun related. Some of the data collected to be analyzed included number of guns seized, number of crimes committed, number of gun related calls and arrest records before initiation of the experiment, during and after completion, for both experimental and control groups. The differences between the experimental and control group were then compared using a difference of means test (t-test). Gun crimes in the 52 weeks before and after the patrols in both the experimental and control group were compared using autoregressive moving averages (ARIMA) MODELS. There was indeed a 65% increase in gun seizure and a decrease in gun crime by 49% in the target area. In the control group, gun seizures and gun crimes remained relatively unchanged. Also, there was no significant displacement of gun crimes to areas surrounding the target area. These results were also similar for homicides and drive-by shootings. Citizen surveys also revealed that most of the general public were less fearful of crime as compared to those in control groups. RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENT The results of this study suggest that there may be clear implications for other cities wishing to reduce their gun crime. But how valid are these conclusions? How reliable are they? All measurements may contain some element of error. In order for the measurements recorded during the Kansas City Gun experiment to be sound, they must be free of bias and distortion. Reliability and validity therefore are important in this regard. Reliability can be seen as the extent to which a measurement method is consistent. Reliability of a measure can be described as when a measure yields consistent scores or observations on a given phenomenon on different occasions ( Bachman and Schutt 2007, p.87). It refers firstly to the extent to which a method of measurement produces the same results for the same case under the same conditions referred to as test-retest reliability and secondly the extent to which responses to the individual items in a multiple-item measure are consistent with each other known as internal consistency. A measure that is not reliable cannot be valid. Can it be said that the measurements used in the Kansas City Gun experiment were reliable and valid? This can be assessed by firstly by looking at its’ test-retest reliability and then secondly, its’ internal consistency. Test-retest reliability As funding ran out the study was never repeated under the same conditions in beat 144, thus strictly speaking there was never an opportunity to test whether the same or similar results would have been obtained over an equivalent period some time later. Internal consistency The measures used in this study included separate bookkeeping and an onsite University of Maryland evaluator who accompanied the officers on 300 hours of hot spots patrol and coded every shift activity narrative for patrol time and enforcement in and out of the area. Property room data on guns seized, computerized crime reports, calls for service data, and arrest records were analyzed for both areas under the study. Sherman and Rogan (1995) then analyzed the data using four different models. The primary analyses assumed that the gun crime counts were independently sampled from the beats examined before and after the intervention. This model treated the before–during difference in the mean weekly rates of gun crime as an estimate of the magnitude of the effect of the hot spots patrols, and assessed the statistical significance of the differences with the standard two-tailed t–tests (Sherman and Roagn (1995)). A second model assumed that the weekly gun crime data points were not independent but were correlated serially, and thus required a Box–Jenkins ARIM (autoregressive integrated moving average) test of the effect of an abrupt intervention in a time series. A third model examined rate events (homicide and drive-by shootings) aggregated in 6-month totals on the assumption that those counts were independent, using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests. A fourth model also assumed independence of observations, and compared the target with the control beat in a before–during chi-square-test. The t–tests compared weekly gun crimes for all 29 weeks of the phase 1 patrol program (July, 7, 1992, through Jan. 25, 1993) with the 29 weeks preceding phase 1, using difference-of-means tests. The ARIM models extended the weekly counts to a full 52 weeks before and after the beginning of phase 1. The ANOVA model added another year before phase 1 (all of 1991) as well as 1993, the year after phase 1 (Sherman and Rogan (1995)). It is submitted that Sherman and Rogan (1995) use of the four different models described above attempted to ensure that an acceptable level of triangulation and as such, internal consistency was achieved given the fact that the program design itself did not lend itself to the researcher having data and an opportunity such that responses to the individual items in a multiple-item measure could be checked for consistency. Reliability may be seen as a prerequisite for validity. Therefore the fact that there was never any opportunity to repeat the study, there was never any opportunity to examine whether the same or similar results would have been obtained in beat 144 over an equivalent period some time using the same policing tactics. In other words can it be safely said that the use of the same measures as mentioned above, i.e., the onsite University of Maryland evaluator who accompanied the officers on 300 hours of hot spots patrol together with Property room data on guns seized, computerized crime reports, calls for service data, and arrest records would have yielded similar results? The simple answer is no as it was never done. It is to be noted that the evaluator accompanied the officers on 300 hours of hot spots patrol out of 2,256 (assuming that the 300 referred to patrol car-hours). Is this number statistically sufficient to reduce the occurrence of random errors which occur as a result of over-estimation and under-estimation of recordings? It is accordingly submitted that the level of reliability of measurement is limited to the instance of this study as there is no way of testing its stability short of repeating it. THE INTERNAL VALIDITY OF CAUSAL INFERENCES Validity is often defined as the extent to which an instrument measures what it purports to measure. Validity requires that an instrument is reliable, but an instrument can be reliable without being valid (Kimberlin and Winterstein (2008)). Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement or what conclusions we can draw from the results of such measurement. Therefore, apart from the issue of reliability discussed above, it must also be determined whether the measures used in the Kansas City Gun Experiment measured what they were suppose to measure and whether the causal inferences drawn possess internal validity. Internal validity means that the study measured what it set out to whilst external validity is the ability to make generalizations from the study (Grimes and Schulz (2002)). With respect to internal validity, selection bias, information bias, and confounding are present to some degree in all observational research. According to Grimes, David, A. and Schulz, Kenneth, F. (2002), selection bias stems from an absence of comparability between groups being studied. Information bias results from incorrect determination of exposure, outcome, or both. The effect of information bias depends on its type. If information is gathered differently for one group than for another, this results in biasness. By contrast, non-differential misclassification tends to obscure real differences. They viewed Confounding as a mixing or blurring of effects: a researcher attempts to relate an exposure to an outcome but actually measures the effect of a third factor (the confounding variable). Confounding can be controlled in several ways: restriction, matching, stratification, and more sophisticated multivariate techniques. If a reader cannot explain away study results on the basis of selection, information, or confounding bias, then chance might be another explanation. Chance should be examined last, however, since these biases can account for highly significant, though bogus results. Differentiation between spurious, indirect, and causal associations can be difficult. Criteria such as temporal sequence, strength and consistency of an association and evidence of a dose-response effect lend support to a causal link. It is submitted that the onsite University of Maryland evaluator who accompanied the officers on 300 hours of hot spots patrol and coded every shift activity narrative for patrol time and enforcement in and out of the area would have been able to give a rough measure of the number of guns seized, whilst the Property room data on guns seized, computerized crime reports, calls for service data, and arrest records would have after analysis indicated whether gun crimes increased or decreased. It could be inferred therefore that as the number of guns seized increased, the level of gun related crimes decreased and that this inference possessed internal validity. THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS TO THE FULL POPULATION THE STUDY SAMPLED According to Grimes, David, A. and Schulz, Kenneth, F. (2002), external validity is the ability to make generalizations from the study. With regard to the Kansas City Gun Experiment, the question which must now be asked is whether the program is likely to be effective in other settings and with other areas, cities or populations. Steckler, Allan McLeroy, Kenneth R. (2007) quoting Campbell D.T. Stanley J.C. (1966) argues that internal validity is as important as external validity. We have thus gone a bit further so not only is it important to know whether the program is effective, but also whether it is likely to be effective in other settings and with other areas, cities or populations. This would accordingly lead to the translation of research to practice. It must be submitted that as with internal validity, the fact that there was never any opportunity to repeat the study, there was never any opportunity to examine whether the same or similar results would have been obtained in beat 144 over an equivalent period some time using the same policing tactics and or in any other beat for that matter. It cannot therefore be validly concluded that the Kansas City Gun Experiment would be as effective in any other beat area. THE CLARITY OF POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF APPLYING THE RESULTS IN POLICING The policy implications of applying the results of the Kansas City Gun Experiment are arguably fairly clear. The most important conclusion is that police can increase the number of guns seized in high gun crime areas at relatively modest cost. Directed patrol around gun crime hot spots is about three times more cost-effective than normal uniformed police activity citywide, on average, in getting guns off the street[1]. Policing bodies around the United States can conclude that although the raw numbers of guns seized in a particular beat may not be impressively large, the impact of even small increases in guns seized in decreasing the percentage of gun crimes can be substantial. If a city wants to adopt this policy in a high gun crime area, this experiment proves that it can be successfully implemented[2]. It is also clear from the Kansas City gun experiment that a focus on gun detection, with freedom from answering calls for service, can make regular beat officers working on overtime very productive. REFERENCES Bachman, R. and Schutt, R, K, (2007). The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice. 3rd Edition , Sage Publications Inc. Sherman and Rogan (1995), â€Å"The Kansas City Gun Experiment†, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Sherman and Rogan (1995), â€Å"The Kansas City Gun Experiment†, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice Sherman and Rogan (1995), â€Å"The Kansas City Gun Experiment†, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice Kimberlin, Carole L., and Winterstein, Almut, G. (2008),â€Å"Validity and Reliability of Measurement Instruments used in Research† Research fundamentals, Am J Health-Syst Pharm—Vol 65 Dec 1, 2008 Grimes, David, A. and Schulz, Kenneth, F. (2002), â€Å"Bias and causal associations in observational research† Grimes, David, A. and Schulz, Kenneth, F. (2002), â€Å"Bias and causal associations in observational research† Campbell D.T. Stanley J.C. (1966), Experimental and Quasi Experimental Designs, Chicago, Ill: Rand McNally; 1966. 8. Steckler, Allan McLeroy, Kenneth R. (2007), The Importance of External Validity, Am J Public Health. 2008 January; 98(1): 9–10. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2007.126847 9. Sherman, Lawrence W., and R.A. Berk, (1984), â€Å"The Specific Deterrent Effects of Arrest for Domestic Assault,† American Sociological Review, (49)(1984):261–272. [1] Sherman, Lawrence W., and R.A. Berk, (1984), â€Å"The Specific Deterrent Effects of Arrest for Domestic Assault,† American Sociological Review, (49)(1984):261–272. [2]

Welcome to Life :: Essays Papers

Welcome to Life "Dear mother, can you hear me whining? (Green Day)" When something was difficult what did you do, especially when you were a young child? You whined. That was the way you got people to pay attention to you. You hoped that this way they could make life better for you. Complaining to your mother will make everything better. That is the logic that many young children are taught. Life is different as you reach different stages and becomes more difficult each time you reach a new challenge. The stages start with your being comfortable in your surroundings, well protected by your family. As you grow older, you begin to grow apart from the people and the area that you were once close to. You start to go on your own path. This path leads you to a new place with which you may not be as comfortable. The song "Welcome to Paradise" by the punk-rock band Green Day explains the difficulty of moving away from home and how eventually life will get better and you will find that you are not as dependant on your family. The song "Welcome to Paradise" begins a mere three weeks after the boy has left his home. He is writing a letter telling his mother how horrible it is to be away from home. He feels he is alone; this is a scary feeling. He reaches out to the audience by discussing a feeling that many young people have recently experienced. I remember when I first started college, whether I want to admit it or not, I was scared. I moved to a new location three hours away from my warm room and, for the first time, I had to do my own laundry, take care of myself, and keep my area clean and livable. These were new and challenging tasks. At times, even though there are forty-two thousand people here, it feels very lonely, as if you are the only one going through this situation. Everyone experiences some sort of uncomfortable feeling when they have to move to a new location and start a new stage in their lives. From personal experience a college senior explains how he felt the first day he moved to live at college, "I definitely felt like I was in some strange limbo Twilight Zone kind of place†¦It wasn’t a very comfortable feeling at all.